Wednesday, April 10, 2013

Flag of the Soviet Union

The flag of the Soviet Union was the official national flag of the Soviet state from 1923 to 1991. The flag's design and symbolism are derived from the Russian Revolution of 1917. The flag is also an international symbol of the communist movement as a whole.
The design is a solid field of red adorned with a unique gold emblem in the upper hoist quarter. The red flag was a traditional revolutionary symbol long before 1917, and its incorporation into the flag paid tribute to the international aspect of workers' revolution. The iconic hammer and sickle design was a modern touch – the union of the hammer (workers) and the sickle (peasants) represents the victorious and enduring revolutionary alliance. The famous emblem is topped by an inconspicuous red star representing the rule of the Communist Party.
The first flag with the red star, hammer and sickle was adopted on 12 November 1923. In 1955, a statute on the flag was adopted which resulted in a change of the hammer's handle length and the shape of the sickle. A final modification to the flag was adopted in 1980 in which the color was brightened to a lighter shade of red. The flag continued to be the official national flag until the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Symbolism and design

The color red has always been a positive symbol in the Russian culture. The word red (Russian: красный, krasny) is etymologically related with the Russian word for beautiful. This can also be seen in Moscow’s Red Square and the Russian Orthodox festivity, Red Easter.
The red field symbolises the blood that has been spilled by workers and farmers in their struggle for emancipation. It honours the red flag of the Paris Commune of 1871. The ideology of communism can be seen from the flag. The red star and hammer and sickle are themselves symbols of communism and socialism. The flag of the Soviet Union consisted of a plain red flag with a gold hammer crossed with a gold sickle which are placed beneath of a gold-bordered red star. This symbol is then placed in the upper left canton of the red flag.
The hammer symbolises urban industrial workers while the sickle symbolises agricultural workers (peasants)—who together, as the Proletarian class, form the state. The red star represents the Communist Party, and its position over hammer and sickle symbolises its leading role in socialist society to unify and enlighten the workers and peasants in the building of communism. The back side of the flag is officially just red, without the symbols. However, in practice, the flag was usually made through and through and thus the symbols usually appeared on the reverse side and in the reverse order.

The flag's design was statuted in 1955, which gave a clear way to define and create the flag. This resulted in a change of the hammer's handle length and the shape of the sickle. The adopted statute stated that :
  1. The ratio of width to length of the flag is 1:2.
  2. Hammer and sickle are in a square with sides equal to ¼ of the flag height. Sharp tip of the sickle lies in the center of the upper side of the square, handles of hammer and sickle rest in bottom corners of the square. Length of the hammer and its handle is ¾ of the square diagonal.
  3. Five-pointed star is inscribed into a circle with a diameter of ⅛ of the flag height, the circle is tangent to the upper side of the square.
  4. Distance of the vertical axis of star, hammer and sickle from the flagstaff is ⅓ of the flag height. Distance from the upper side of the flag to the center of the star is ⅛ of the flag height.
The final design of the flag was adopted in 1980. The design was kept the same except that the background colour was changed. The color was brightened from a near-burgundy crimson to a light to medium red. That flag remained the national flag of the Soviet Union up until late 1991, when a tri-color was formally adopted by the Russian SFSR.

History 

During the establishment of the Russian SFSR, Vladimir Lenin and his colleagues had considered the inclusion of a sword symbol in addition to the hammer and sickle as part of the state seal on which the flag was eventually based. The idea was dismissed as too visually aggressive. Lenin apparently said "A sword is not our symbol."
The first official flag was adopted in December 1922 at the First Congress of Soviets of the USSR. It was agreed that the red banner 'was transformed from the symbol of the Party to the symbol of a state, and around that flag gathered the peoples of the soviet republics to unite into one state — the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics'. On 30 December 1922, the Congress adopted a Declaration and Agreement on the establishment of the USSR. Article 22 of the Agreement states: 'the USSR has a flag, coat of arms and a state seal.' The description of the first flag was given in the 1924 Soviet Constitution, accepted in the second session of the Executive Committee (CIK) of the USSR on 6 July 1923. The text of article 71 states: 'The state flag of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics consists of a red or scarlet field with states coat of arms'. It was ordered with the unusual ratio of 4:1 in proportion and consisted of a red flag with the state coat of arms in the center. However, such a flag was never mass-produced. This flag was the official flag for four months, and was replaced as the official flag by the more familiar hammer and sickle design during the third session of the CIK of the USSR on 12 November 1923.
In the third session of the CIK of the USSR, the description of Soviet flag in the Constitution was changed, and article 71 was edited to be: 'The state flag of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics consists of a red or scarlet field, and in the canton a golden sickle and hammer, and a red five-pointed star bordered in gold above them. The ratio of width to length is 1:2.' On 19 August 1955 "Statute on the State Flag of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" was adopted by a decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. This resulted in a change of the hammer's handle length and the shape of the sickle. A final modification to the flag was adopted on 15 August 1980, which changed the flag field into a bright red. These modifications stayed into use until the disintegration of the USSR on 25 December 1991, at which time the flag ceased to be a national flag.


References

  1. ^ Whitney Smith (2008). "Flag of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
  2. ^ "Story of the Red Flag", Revolution, 05-19-2006. Retrieved 12-02-2007.
  3. ^ Victor Lomantsov (2002-11-30). "Reverse of the flag". FOTW.net. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
  4. ^ USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium (19 August 1955). "Положение о государственном флаге СССР" (in Russian). Retrieved 2008-11-05.
  5. ^ Konstantin Andreevich Ivanov (1971). Flags of the states of the world (in Russian). Moscow: Izd-vo Transport. p. [page needed]. OCLC 20146023

Tan Malaka Dan Komunis



Tan Malaka atau Ibrahim gelar Datuk Tan Malaka (lahir di Nagari Pandam Gadang, Suliki, Sumatera Barat, 2 Juni 1897 – meninggal di Desa Selopanggung, Kediri, Jawa Timur, 21 Februari 1949 pada umur 51 tahun) adalah Bapak Republik Indonesia, seorang aktivis pejuang kemerdekaan Indonesia, seorang pemimpin sosialis, dan politisi yang mendirikan Partai Murba. Pejuang yang militan, radikal, dan revolusioner ini banyak melahirkan pemikiran-pemikiran yang berbobot dan berperan besar dalam sejarah perjuangan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Dengan perjuangan yang gigih maka ia dikenal sebagai tokoh revolusioner yang legendaris.
Dia kukuh mengkritik terhadap pemerintah kolonial Hindia-Belanda maupun pemerintahan republik di bawah Soekarno pasca-revolusi kemerdekaan Indonesia. Walaupun berpandangan sosialis, ia juga sering terlibat konflik dengan Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI).

Tan Malaka menghabiskan sebagian besar hidupnya dalam pembuangan di luar Indonesia, dan secara tak henti-hentinya terancam dengan penahanan oleh penguasa Belanda dan sekutu-sekutu mereka. Walaupun secara jelas disingkirkan, Tan Malaka dapat memainkan peran intelektual penting dalam membangun jaringan gerakan sosialis internasional untuk gerakan anti penjajahan di Asia Tenggara. Ia dinyatakan sebagai pahlawan nasional melalui Ketetapan Presiden RI No. 53 tanggal 23 Maret 1963.
Tan Malaka juga seorang pendiri partai PARI dan Murba, berasal dari Sarekat Islam (SI) Jakarta dan Semarang. Ia dibesarkan dalam suasana semangatnya gerakan modernis Islam Kaoem Moeda di Sumatera Barat.
Tokoh ini diduga kuat sebagai orang di belakang peristiwa penculikan Sutan Sjahrir bulan Juni 1946 oleh sekelompok orang tak dikenal di Surakarta sebagai akibat perbedaan pandangan perjuangan dalam menghadapi Belanda.

Riwayat

  • Tahun 1897, Tan Malaka lahir di Suliki, Sumatera Barat. Dia lahir di tengah-tengah lingkungan Minangkabau, dari pasangan Rasad Caniago dan Sinah Simabur.
  • Saat berumur 16 tahun, 1913, setelah tamat Kweekschool Bukit Tinggi, atas bantuan gurunya dengan pinjaman biaya dari Engkufonds, meneruskan pelajarannya ke Rijks Kweekschool di Haarlem, Belanda.
  • Tahun 1919 ia kembali ke Indonesia dan bekerja sebagai guru disebuah perkebunan di Deli. Ketimpangan sosial yang dilihatnya di lingkungan perkebunan, antara kaum buruh dan tuan tanah menimbulkan semangat radikal pada diri Tan Malaka muda.
  • Tahun 1921, ia pergi ke Semarang dan bertemu dengan Semaun dan mulai terjun ke kancah politik
  • Saat kongres PKI 24-25 Desember 1921, Tan Malaka di undang dalam acara tersebut.
  • Januari 1922 ia ditangkap dan dibuang ke Kupang.
  • Pada Maret 1922 Tan Malaka diusir dari Indonesia dan mengembara ke Berlin, Moskwa dan Belanda.
  • Mewakili Indonesia dalam Kongres Komunis Internasional (Komintern) IV, kemudian diangkat sebagai Wakil Komintern di Asia dan berkedudukan di Kanton.
  • Tahun 1924, diangkat sebagai Ketua Biro Buruh Lalu Lintas dalam sebuah Konferensi Pan-Pasifik yang diselenggarakan oleh utusan-utusan Komintern dan Provintern.
  • Tahun 1925, menerbitkan buku "Naar de Republiek Indonesia" (Menuju Republik Indonesia) yang berisi konsep tentang negara Indonesia yang tengah diperjuangkan. Lebih dulu dari pleidoi Mohammad Hatta didepan pengadilan Belanda di Den Haag yang berjudul "Indonesia Vrije" (Indonesia Merdeka) (1928) atau tulisan Soekarno yang berjudul "Menuju Indonesia Merdeka" (1933)
  • Tahun 1925, masuk Filipina dengan nama Elias Fuentes dan berhasil menghubungi salah seorang sahabat Semaun di sana, selanjutnya mendorong didirikannya Partai Komunis Filipina.
  • Tahun 1926, masuk Singapura dengan nama Hasan Gozali, bertemu dengan Subakat, Sugono dan Djamaluddin Tamim yang berhasil meloloskan diri dari Indonesia.
  • Tahun 1927, bersama Subakat, Sugono, dan Djamaluddin Tamim mendirikan PARI (Partai Republik Indonesia).
  • Tahun 1932, berhasil masuk Hongkong dengan nama Ong Soong Lee, kemudian tertangkap oleh Polisi Rahasia Inggris. Setelah lebih kurang 2 ½ bulan ditahan dalam penjara Hongkong, Tan Malaka mendapat keputusan dikeluarkan ke Shanghai.
  • Tahun 1936, mendirikan dan mengajar pada School for Foreign Languages di Amoy, Cina.
  • Tahun 1937, Tan Malaka masuk Burma kemudian ke Singapura, bekerja sebagai guru bahasa Inggris di Sekolah Menengah Tinggi Singapura.
  • Tahun 1942, Tan Malaka masuk Penang menuju Medan, Padang, dan akhirnya tiba di Jakarta.
  • Tahun 1943, menulis buku dan menyusun kekuatan bawah tanah (ilegal), dengan menjadi buruh (romusha) pada tambang batu bara di Bayah (Banten) dengan nama Husein.
  • Tahun 1945, mendorong para pemuda yang bekerja di bawah tanah pada masa pendudukan Jepang (Sukarni, Chairul Saleh, Adam Malik, Pandu Kartawiguna, Maruto, dan lain-lain) untuk mencetuskan revolusi yang kemudian terjadi dengan Proklamasi Republik Indonesia pada tanggal 17 Agustus 1945.
  • Tahun 1946, menjadi promotor Persatuan Perjuangan yang mengikatkan persatuan antara sejumlah 141 organisasi terdiri dari pimpinan partai, serikat-serikat buruh, pemuda, wanita, tentara, dan laskar.
  • Tahun 1947, menentang politik Perundingan Linggarjati.
  • Tahun 1948, menentang politik Perundingan Renville. Mendirikan Partai Murba dan Gerilya Pembela Proklamasi.
  • 21 Februari 1949, Tan Malaka mati terbunuh di Kediri, Jawa Timur.
 Perjuangan 

Pada tahun 1921 Tan Malaka telah terjun ke dalam gelanggang politik. Dengan semangat yang berkobar dari sebuah gubuk miskin, Tan Malaka banyak mengumpulkan pemuda-pemuda komunis. Pemuda cerdas ini banyak juga berdiskusi dengan Semaun (wakil ISDV) mengenai pergerakan revolusioner dalam pemerintahan Hindia Belanda. Selain itu juga merencanakan suatu pengorganisasian dalam bentuk pendidikan bagi anggota-anggota PKI dan SI (Sarekat Islam) untuk menyusun suatu sistem tentang kursus-kursus kader serta ajaran-ajaran komunis, gerakan-gerakan aksi komunis, keahlian berbicara, jurnalistik dan keahlian memimpin rakyat. Namun pemerintahan Belanda melarang pembentukan kursus-kursus semacam itu sehingga mengambil tindakan tegas bagi pesertanya.

Melihat hal itu Tan Malaka mempunyai niat untuk mendirikan sekolah-sekolah sebagai anak-anak anggota SI untuk penciptaan kader-kader baru. Juga dengan alasan pertama: memberi banyak jalan (kepada para murid) untuk mendapatkan mata pencaharian di dunia kapitalis (berhitung, menulis, membaca, ilmu bumi, bahasa Belanda, Melayu, Jawa dan lain-lain); kedua, memberikan kebebasan kepada murid untuk mengikuti kegemaran mereka dalam bentuk perkumpulan-perkumpulan; ketiga, untuk memperbaiki nasib kaum miskin. Untuk mendirikan sekolah itu, ruang rapat SI Semarang diubah menjadi sekolah. Dan sekolah itu bertumbuh sangat cepat hingga sekolah itu semakin lama semakin besar.
Perjuangan Tan Malaka tidaklah hanya sebatas pada usaha mencerdaskan rakyat Indonesia pada saat itu, tapi juga pada gerakan-gerakan dalam melawan ketidakadilan seperti yang dilakukan para buruh terhadap pemerintahan Hindia Belanda lewat VSTP dan aksi-aksi pemogokan, disertai selebaran-selebaran sebagai alat propaganda yang ditujukan kepada rakyat agar rakyat dapat melihat adanya ketidakadilan yang diterima oleh kaum buruh.
Seperti dikatakan Tan Malaka pada pidatonya di depan para buruh “Semua gerakan buruh untuk mengeluarkan suatu pemogokan umum sebagai pernyataan simpati, apabila nanti mengalami kegagalan maka pegawai yang akan diberhentikan akan didorongnya untuk berjuang dengan gigih dalam pergerakan revolusioner”.
Pergulatan Tan Malaka dengan partai komunis di dunia sangatlah jelas. Ia tidak hanya mempunyai hak untuk memberi usul-usul dan dan mengadakan kritik tetapi juga hak untuk mengucapkan vetonya atas aksi-aksi yang dilakukan partai komunis di daerah kerjanya. Tan Malaka juga harus mengadakan pengawasan supaya anggaran dasar, program dan taktik dari Komintern (Komunis Internasional) dan Profintern seperti yang telah ditentukan di kongres-kongres Moskwa diikuti oleh kaum komunis dunia. Dengan demikian tanggung-jawabnya sebagai wakil Komintern lebih berat dari keanggotaannya di PKI.
Sebagai seorang pemimpin yang masih sangat muda ia meletakkan tanggung jawab yang sangat berat pada pundaknya. Tan Malaka dan sebagian kawan-kawannya memisahkan diri dan kemudian memutuskan hubungan dengan PKI, Sardjono-Alimin-Musso.
Pemberontakan 1926 yang direkayasa dari Keputusan Prambanan yang berakibat bunuh diri bagi perjuangan nasional rakyat Indonesia melawan penjajah waktu itu. Pemberontakan 1926 hanya merupakan gejolak kerusuhan dan keributan kecil di beberapa daerah di Indonesia. Maka dengan mudah dalam waktu singkat pihak penjajah Belanda dapat mengakhirinya. Akibatnya ribuan pejuang politik ditangkap dan ditahan. Ada yang disiksa, ada yang dibunuh dan banyak yang dibuang ke Boven Digoel, Irian Jaya. Peristiwa ini dijadikan dalih oleh Belanda untuk menangkap, menahan dan membuang setiap orang yang melawan mereka, sekalipun bukan PKI. Maka perjaungan nasional mendapat pukulan yang sangat berat dan mengalami kemunduran besar serta lumpuh selama bertahun-tahun.
Tan Malaka yang berada di luar negeri pada waktu itu, berkumpul dengan beberapa temannya di Bangkok. Di ibu kota Thailand itu, bersama Soebakat dan Djamaludddin Tamin, Juni 1927 Tan Malaka memproklamasikan berdirinya Partai Republik Indonesia (PARI). Dua tahun sebelumnya Tan Malaka telah menulis "Menuju Republik Indonesia". Itu ditunjukkan kepada para pejuang intelektual di Indonesia dan di negeri Belanda. Terbitnya buku itu pertama kali di Kowloon, Hong Kong, April 1925.
Prof. Mohammad Yamin, dalam karya tulisnya "Tan Malaka Bapak Republik Indonesia" memberi komentar: "Tak ubahnya daripada Jefferson Washington merancangkan Republik Amerika Serikat sebelum kemerdekaannya tercapai atau Rizal Bonifacio meramalkan Philippina sebelum revolusi Philippina pecah…."

Madilog

Madilog merupakan istilah baru dalam cara berpikir, dengan menghubungkan ilmu bukti serta mengembangkan dengan jalan dan metode yang sesuai dengan akar dan urat kebudayaan Indonesia sebagai bagian dari kebudayaan dunia. Bukti adalah fakta dan fakta adalah lantainya ilmu bukti. Bagi filsafat, idealisme yang pokok dan pertama adalah budi (mind), kesatuan, pikiran dan penginderaan. Filsafat materialisme menganggap alam, benda dan realita nyata obyektif sekeliling sebagai yang ada, yang pokok dan yang pertama.
Bagi Madilog (Materialisme, Dialektika, Logika) yang pokok dan pertama adalah bukti, walau belum dapat diterangkan secara rasional dan logika tapi jika fakta sebagai landasan ilmu bukti itu ada secara konkrit, sekalipun ilmu pengetahuan secara rasional belum dapat menjelaskannya dan belum dapat menjawab apa, mengapa dan bagaimana.
Semua karya Tan Malaka dan permasalahannya didasari oleh kondisi Indonesia. Terutama rakyat Indonesia, situasi dan kondisi nusantara serta kebudayaan, sejarah lalu diakhiri dengan bagaimana mengarahkan pemecahan masalahnya. Cara tradisi nyata bangsa Indonesia dengan latar belakang sejarahnya bukanlah cara berpikir yang teoritis dan untuk mencapai Republik Indonesia sudah dia cetuskan sejak tahun 1925 lewat Naar de Republiek Indonesia.
Jika membaca karya-karya Tan Malaka yang meliputi semua bidang kemasyarakatan, kenegaraan, politik, ekonomi, sosial, kebudayaan sampai kemiliteran (Gerpolek-Gerilya-Politik dan Ekonomi, 1948), maka akan ditemukan benang putih keilmiahan dan ke-Indonesia-an serta benang merah kemandirian, sikap konsisten yang jelas dalam gagasan-gagasan serta perjuangannya.

 Pahlawan 

Peristiwa 3 Juli 1946 yang didahului dengan penangkapan dan penahanan Tan Malaka bersama pimpinan Persatuan Perjuangan, di dalam penjara tanpa pernah diadili selama dua setengah tahun. Setelah meletus pemberontakan FDR/PKI di Madiun, September 1948 dengan pimpinan Musso dan Amir Syarifuddin, Tan Malaka dikeluarkan begitu saja dari penjara akibat peristiwa itu.
Di luar, setelah mengevaluasi situasi yang amat parah bagi Republik Indonesia akibat Perjanjian Linggajati 1947 dan Renville 1948, yang merupakan buah dari hasil diplomasi Sutan Syahrir dan Perdana Menteri Amir Syarifuddin, Tan Malaka merintis pembentukan Partai Murba, 7 November 1948 di Yogyakarta.
Pada tahun 1949 tepatnya bulan Februari Tan Malaka hilang tak tentu rimbanya, mati tak tentu kuburnya di tengah-tengah perjuangan bersama Gerilya Pembela Proklamasi di Pethok, Kediri, Jawa Timur. Tapi akhirnya misteri tersebut terungkap juga dari penuturan Harry A. Poeze, seorang Sejarawan Belanda yang menyebutkan bahwa Tan Malaka ditembak mati pada tanggal 21 Februari 1949 atas perintah Letda Soekotjo dari Batalyon Sikatan, Divisi Brawijaya.
Direktur Penerbitan Institut Kerajaan Belanda untuk Studi Karibia dan Asia Tenggara atau KITLV, Harry A Poeze kembali merilis hasil penelitiannya, bahwa Tan Malaka ditembak pasukan TNI di lereng Gunung Wilis, tepatnya di Desa Selopanggung, Kecamatan Semen, Kabupaten Kediri pada 21 Februari 1949.
Namun berdasarkan keputusan Presiden RI No. 53, yang ditandatangani Presiden Soekarno 28 Maret 1963 menetapkan bahwa Tan Malaka adalah seorang pahlawan kemerdekaan Nasional.

Tan Malaka Dalam Fiksi 

Dengan julukan Patjar Merah Indonesia Tan Malaka merupakan tokoh utama beberapa roman picisan yang terbit di Medan. Roman-roman tersebut mengisahkan petualangan Patjar Merah, seorang aktivis politik yang memperjuangkan kemerdekaan Tanah Air-nya, Indonesia, dari kolonialisme Belanda. Karena kegiatannya itu, ia harus melarikan diri dari Indonesia dan menjadi buruan polisi rahasia internasional.
Salah satu roman Patjar Merah yang terkenal adalah roman karangan Matu Mona yang berjudul Spionnage-Dienst (Patjar Merah Indonesia). Nama Pacar Merah sendiri berasal dari karya Baronesse Orczy yang berjudul Scarlet Pimpernel, yang berkisah tentang pahlawan Revolusi Prancis.
Dalam cerita-cerita tersebut selain Tan Malaka muncul juga tokoh-tokoh PKI dan PARI lainnya, yaitu Muso (sebagai Paul Mussotte), Alimin (Ivan Alminsky), Semaun (Semounoff), Darsono (Darsnoff), Djamaluddin Tamin (Djalumin) dan Soebakat (Soe Beng Kiat).
Kisah-kisah fiksi ini turut memperkuat legenda Tan Malaka di Indonesia, terutama di Sumatera.
Beberapa judul kisah Patjar Merah:
  • Matu Mona. Spionnage-Dienst (Patjar Merah Indonesia). Medan (1938)
  • Matu Mona. Rol Patjar Merah Indonesia cs. Medan (1938)
  • Emnast. Tan Malaka di Medan. Medan (1940)
  • Tiga kali Patjar Merah Datang Membela (1940)
  • Patjar Merah Kembali ke Tanah Air (1940)

 Fakta Fakta Tan Malaka
  • Perjalanan Tan Malaka sepanjang 89.000 km, setara 2 kali keliling bumi. Dia mengunjungi dua benua dan sekurang-kurangnya ke 11 Negara.
  • Bahasa Yang Dikuasai : Minang, Indonesia, Belanda, Rusia, Jerman, Inggris, Mandarin, Tagalog.
  • Nama Samaran : Elias Fuentes, Estahislau Rivera, Alisio Rivera (Filipina); Hasan Gozali (Singapura), Ossorio (Shanghai), Ong Song Lee (13 varian, Hongkong), Tan Ming Sion (Burma), Legas Hussein, Ramli Hussein, Ilyas Hussein (Indonesia), Cheung Kun Tat, Howard Lee (Cina).
  • Teman Dekat Wanita : Syarifah Nawawi (Bukittinggi), Fenny Struyvenberg (Belanda), Nona Carmen (Filipina), Paramita Rahayu Abdurrachman (Jakarta), dan A.P. Toa Chi (Cina)
  • Penjara : Filipina (1937), Hongkong (1932), 11 Penjara di Jawa (1922, 1946-1948)
 Bibliografi
  • Parlemen atau Soviet (1920)
  • SI Semarang dan Onderwijs (1921)
  • Dasar Pendidikan (1921)
  • Naar de Republiek Indonesia (Menuju Republik Indonesia) (1924)
  • Semangat Muda (1925)
  • Massa Actie (1926)
  • Pari dan Nasionalisten (1927)
  • Pari dan PKI (1927)
  • Pari International (1927)
  • Manifesto Bangkok(1927)
  • Aslia Bergabung (1943)
  • Muslihat (1945)
  • Rencana Ekonomi Berjuang (1945)
  • Politik (1945)
  • Manifesto Jakarta (1945)
  • Thesis (1946)
  • Pidato Purwokerto (1946)
  • Pidato Solo (1946)
  • Madilog (1948)
  • Islam dalam Tinjauan Madilog (1948)
  • Gerpolek (1948)
  • Pidato Kediri (1948)
  • Pandangan Hidup (1948)
  • Kuhandel di Kaliurang (1948)
  • Proklamasi 17-8-45 Isi dan Pelaksanaanya (1948)
  • Dari Pendjara ke Pendjara (1970) 

 Refrensi
  1. ^ a b c "Misteri Kematian Tan Malaka Terungkap", Kompas, diakses Juli 2007
  2. ^ Muhammad Yamin, Tan Malaka Bapak Republik Indonesia: Riwajat Politik Seorang Pengandjoer Revolusioner jang Berfikir, Berdjoeang dan Menderita Membentoek Negara Republik Indonesia, Djakarta: Berita Indonesia, 1946
  3. ^ M. Yuanda Zara, Peristiwa 3 Juli 1946: Menguak Kudeta Pertama dalam Sejarah Indonesia, MedPress, 2009
  4. ^ lihat Soejatno dan Anderson B 1974. Revolution and social tensions in Surakarta 1945-1950. Indonesia 17:99-111 (dengan dua rujukan lainnya di catatan kaki).
  5. ^ Majalah Tempo Edisi Khusus Tan Malaka, 7 Agustus 2008
 Bacaan Lanjutan
  • Castle, James W. Diplomasi and Perdjuangan Tan Malaka Contra Sjahrir: Kegelisahan Kepada Revolusi. , 1972.
  • Hery, Yunior H. Tan Malaka Dibunuh!: Meneropong Krisis Politik, 1945-1949. Yogyakarta: Resist Book, 2007.
  • Mrazek, Rudolf. Semesta Tan Malaka. Yogyakarta: Bigraf Pub, 1994.
  • Poeze, Harry A. Tan Malaka, Gerakan Kiri, Dan Revolusi Indonesia. Jakarta: KITLV-Jakarta, 2008.
  • Poeze, Harry A, and Hersri Setiawan. Tan Malaka, Gerakan Kiri, Dan Revolusi Indonesia: Jil. 2. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2009.
  • Poeze, Harry A, and Hersri Setiawan. Tan Malaka, Gerakan Kiri, Dan Revolusi Indonesia: Jil. 3. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia, 2010.
  • Poeze, Harry A. Tan Malaka: Pergulatan Menuju Republik. Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Grafiti, 1999.
  • Yamin, Muhammad. Tan Malaka: Bapak Republik Indonesia. Djawa Timur: Moerba Berdjoeang, 1946.
  • Zulkifli, Arif. Tan Malaka. Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia (KPG), 2010.
 Pranala Luar
 Sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_Malaka

Tuesday, April 9, 2013

Geography of Moscow, Russia

Moscow is Russia's capital city and is the largest city in the country. As of January 1, 2010, Moscow's population was 10,562,099, which also makes it one of the top ten largest cities in the world. Because of its size, Moscow is one of the most influential cities in Russia and dominates the country in politics, economics and culture among other things.

 Moscow is located in Russia's Central Federal District along the Moskva River and covers an area of 417.4 square miles (9,771 sq km).

The following is a list of ten things to know about Moscow:

1) In 1156 the first references to the construction of a wall around a growing city called Moscow began to appear in Russian documents as did descriptions of the city being attacked by the Mongols in the 13th century. Moscow was first made a capital city in 1327 when it was named capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. It later became known as the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

2) Throughout much of the rest of its history, Moscow was attacked by rival empires and armies. In the 17th century a large part of the city was damaged during citizen uprisings and in 1771 much of Moscow's population died due to plague. Shortly thereafter in 1812, Moscow's citizens (called Muscovites) burned the city during Napoleon's invasion.

3) After the Russian Revolution in 1917, Moscow became the capital of what would eventually become the Soviet Union in 1918. During World War II however, a large portion of the city suffered damage from bombings. Following WWII, Moscow grew but instability continued in the city during the fall of the Soviet Union. Since then though, Moscow has become more stable and is a growing economic and political center of Russia.

4) Today, Moscow is a highly organized city located on the banks of the Moskva River. It has 49 bridges crossing the river and a road system that radiates in rings out from the Kremlin in the city's center.

5) Moscow has a climate with humid and warm to hot summers and cold winters. The hottest months are June, July and August while the coldest is January. The average high temperature for July is 74°F (23.2°C) and the average low for January is 13°F (-10.3°C).

6) The city of Moscow is governed by one mayor but it is also broken down into ten local administrative divisions called okrugs and 123 local districts. The ten okrugs radiate out around the central district which contains the city's historic center, Red Square and the Kremlin.

7) Moscow is considered the center of Russian culture because of the presence of many different museums and theaters in the city. Moscow is home to the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the Moscow State Historical Museum. It is also home to Red Square which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

8) Moscow is well-known for its unique architecture which consists of many different historic buildings such as Saint Basil's Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Distinctive modern buildings are also beginning to be constructed throughout the city.

9) Moscow is considered one of the largest economies in Europe and its main industries include chemicals, food, textiles, energy production, software development and furniture manufacturing. The city is also home to some of the world's largest companies.

10) In 1980, Moscow was host of the Summer Olympics and thus has a variety of different sports venues that are still used by the many sports teams within the city. Ice hockey, tennis and rugby are some popular Russian sports.

To learn more about Moscow visit Lonely Planet's Guide to Moscow.

Reference

Wikipedia. (2010, March 31). "Moscow." Moscow- Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow

Geography of Siberia

Siberia is the region making up nearly all of Northern Asia. It is made up of the central and eastern portions of Russia and it encompasses the area from the Ural Mountains east to the Pacific Ocean. It also extends from the Arctic Ocean south to northern Kazakhstan and the borders of Mongolia and China. In total Siberia covers 5.1 million square miles (13.1 million sq km) or 77% of Russia's territory (map).

History of Siberia

Siberia has a long history that dates back to prehistoric times. Evidence of some of the earliest human species has been found in southern Siberia that dates back to about 40,000 years ago. These species include Homo neanderthalensis, the species before humans, and Homo sapiens, humans, as well as a currently unidentified species whose fossils were found in March 2010.

In the early 13th century the area of present-day Siberia was conquered by the Mongols. Prior to that time, Siberia was inhabited by various nomadic groups. In the 14th century the independent Siberian Khanate was established after the break-up of the Golden Horde in 1502.

In the 16th century Russia began to grow in power and it started to take lands from the Siberian Khanate. Initially, the Russian army began to establish forts farther east and eventually it developed the towns of Tara, Yeniseysk and Tobolsk and extended its area of control to the Pacific Ocean. Outside of these towns however, most of Siberia was sparsely populated and only traders and explorers entered the region. In the 19th century, Imperial Russia and its territories began sending prisoners to Siberia. At its height around 1.2 million prisoners were sent to Siberia.

Beginning in 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began to link Siberia to the rest of Russia. From 1801 to 1914, about seven million people moved from European Russia to Siberia and from 1859 to 1917 (after the construction of the railroad was complete) over 500,000 people moved to Siberia. In 1893, Novosibirsk was founded, which today is Siberia's largest city, and in the 20th century industrial towns grew throughout the region as Russia began to exploit its many natural resources.

In the early to mid-1900s, Siberia continued to grow in population as natural resource extraction became the main economic practice of the region. In addition, during the time of the Soviet Union, prison labor camps were set up in Siberia that were similar to those created earlier by Imperial Russia. From 1929 to 1953, over 14 million people worked in these camps.

Today Siberia has a population of 36 million people and it is divided into several different districts. The region also has a number of major cities, of which Novosibirsk is the largest with a population of 1.3 million people.


Geography and Climate of Siberia

Siberia has a total area of over 5.1 million square miles (13.1 million sq km) and as such it has a highly varied topography that covers several different geographic zones. The major geographical zones of Siberia however are the West Siberian Plateau and the Central Siberian Plateau. The West Siberian Plateau is mainly flat and swampy. The northern portions of the plateau are dominated by permafrost, while the southern areas are comprised of grasslands.

The Central Siberian Plateau is an ancient volcanic region that is rich in natural materials and minerals like manganese, lead, zinc, nickel and cobalt. It also has areas with deposits of diamonds and gold. However most of this area is under permafrost and the dominant landscape type outside of the extreme northern areas (which are tundra) is taiga.

Outside of these major regions, Siberia has several rugged mountain ranges that include the Ural Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Verkhoyansk Range. The highest point in Siberia is Klyuchevskaya Sopka, an active volcano on the Kamchatka Peninsula, at 15,253 feet (4,649 m). Siberia is also home to Lake Baikal - the world's oldest and deepest lake. Lake Baikal is estimated to be around 30 million years old and at its deepest point it is 5,387 feet (1,642 m). It also contains about 20% of the Earth's non-frozen water.

Nearly all of the vegetation in Siberia is taiga, but there are tundra areas on in its northern areas and an area of temperate forests in the south. Most of Siberia's climate is subarctic and precipitation is loc except for the Kamchatka Peninsula. The average January low temperature of Novosibirsk, Siberia's largest city, is -4˚F (-20˚C), while the average July high is 78˚F (26˚C).

Economy and People of Siberia

Siberia is rich in minerals and natural resources which led to its early development and makes up the majority of its economy today as agriculture is limited due to permafrost and a short growing season. As a result of the rich mineral and natural resource supplies the region today has a total population of 36 million people. Most of the people are of Russian and Ukrainian descent but there are also ethnic Germans and other groups. In the far eastern parts of Siberia there is also a considerable amount of Chinese. Nearly all of Siberia's population (70%) lives in cities.

Reference

Wikipedia.org. (28 March 2011). Siberia - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia

Russia Maps

Under Peter I (ruled 1682-1725), Russian hegemony was extended to the Baltic Sea and the country became the Russian Empire. During the 19th century, more territorial acquisitions for Russia were made in Europe and Asia. Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to the Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliament and other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The Communists under Vladimir Lenin seized power soon after and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Joseph (Iosif) Stalin (1928-53) strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the following decades until General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent republics. (Source: CIA World FactBook)